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The first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19, 1963. The first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, on April 12, 1981.

During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space. The Enterprise was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a Boeing 747 and gliding to deadstick landings at Edwards AFB, California.

The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was the Columbia, followed by the Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. The Endeavour was built to replace the Challenger when it was lost in January 1986. The Columbia broke up during reentry in February 2003.

The first automatic partially reusable spacecraft was the Buran (Snowstorm), launched by the USSR on November 15, 1988, although it made only one flight. This spaceplane was designed for a crew and strongly resembled the U.S. Space Shuttle, although its drop-off boosters used liquid propellants and its main engines were located at the base of what would be the external tank in the American Shuttle.

Lack of funding, complicated by the dissolution of the USSR, prevented any further flights of Buran. The Space Shuttle has since been modified to allow for autonomous re-entry via the addition of a control cable running from the control cabin to the mid-deck which would allow for the automated deployment of the landing gear in the event a un-crewed re-entry was required following abandonment due to damage at the ISS.

Per the Vision for Space Exploration, the Space Shuttle is due to be retired in 2010 due mainly to its old age and high cost of program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by the partially reusable Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) no later than 2014. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) or a Shuttle Derived Launch Vehicle.

Scaled Composites' SpaceShipOne was a reusable suborbital spaceplane that carried pilots Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie on consecutive flights in 2004 to win the Ansari X Prize. The Spaceship Company will build its successor SpaceShipTwo. A fleet of SpaceShipTwos operated by Virgin Galactic should begin reusable private spaceflight carrying paying passengers in 2009.

Source:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reusable_launch_system

Astrofisika Partikel

Particle physics is a branch of physics that studies the elementary subatomic constituents of matter and radiation, and their interactions. The field is also called high energy physics, because many elementary particles do not occur under ambient conditions on Earth. They can only be created artificially during high energy collisions with other particles in particle accelerators.

Particle physics has evolved out of its parent field of nuclear physics and is typically still taught in close association with it. Scientific research in this area has produced a long list of particles.

CERN

CERN atau dalam bahasa Indonesia: Organisasi Eropa untuk Riset Nuklir (singkatan dari bahasa Perancis: Organisation Européene pour la Recherche Nucléaire, bahasa Inggris: European Organization for Nuclear Research) adalah sebuah kompleks laboratorium percepatan partikel terbesar di dunia yang terletak di perbatasan antara Perancis dan Swis, persis di sebelah barat Jenewa.

Konvensi yang menyetujui organsisasi ini ditanda tangani pada 29 September 1954. Dari 12 anggota, pada 2005 menjadi 20 negara anggota. Akronim CERN berasal dari Conseil Européene pour la Recherche Nucléaire, sebuah dewan yang didirikan untuk mendiskusikan pembangunan fasilitas penelitian fisika nuklir di Eropa.

Fungsi utamanya untuk menyediakan percepatan partikel yang dibutuhkan untuk riset dan banyak eksperimen fisika energi tinggi yang telah banyak dilakukan di sini oleh kerja sama internasional untuk memanfaatkannya. Lokasi utama di Meyrin juga memiliki pusat komputer besar yang memiliki fasilitas prosesi data yang kuat, utamanya untuk eksperimen dalam analisis data, dan untuk menyediakan data untuk para peneliti dimanapun mereka berada situs ini telah menjadi penghubung WAN utama.

Pada 2005 CERN mempekerjakan hampir 3000 orang. 7931 ilmuwan dan insinyur (mewakili 500 universitas dan 80 kewarganegaraan), kira-kira setengahnya adalah komunitas fisika partikel, yang bekerja untuk eksperimen yang dilakukan di CERN ini.

US Laboratories and Technology Centers 

 

DOE's laboratories and technology centers house world-class facilities where cutting-edge research is performed.  The facilities, along with their more than 30,000 scientists and engineers, report to DOE Program offices (pdf - 27kb).

Ames Laboratory     The Ames Laboratory is a national center for the synthesis, analysis, and engineering of rare-earth metals and their compounds.  Ames conducts fundamental research in the physical, chemical, and mathematical sciences associated with energy generation and storage.

Argonne National Laboratory     The Argonne National Laboratory is one of the Department of Energy's largest multidisciplinary research centers. Argonne research falls into five broad categories: basic research, scientific facilities, energy resources programs, environmental management and National security.

Brookhaven National Laboratory     Brookhaven National Laboratory conducts research in the physical, biomedical, and environmental sciences, as well as in energy technologies and national security and builds and operates major scientific facilities available to university, industry and government researchers.

Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory     The Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory advances the understanding of the fundamental nature of matter and energy by providing leadership and resources for qualified researchers to conduct basic research at the frontiers of high energy physics and related disciplines.

Idaho National Laboratory     The Idaho National Laboratory is a science-based, applied engineering national laboratory dedicated to supporting the U.S. Department of Energy's missions in environment, energy, science and national defense.

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory   The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory conducts unclassified research across a wide range of scientific disciplines with key efforts in fundamental studies of the universe; quantitative biology; nanoscience; new energy systems and environmental solutions; and the use of integrated computing as a tool for discovery.

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory     The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is a U.S. Department of Energy national laboratory founded in September 1952 as a second nuclear weapons design laboratory to promote innovation in the design of our nation's nuclear stockpile through creative science and engineering.

Los Alamos National Laboratory     The Los Alamos National Laboratory, as part of the National Nuclear Security Administration, contributes to meeting the nation's nuclear deterrence capability and other security needs.

National Energy Technology Laboratory      The National Energy Technology Laboratory assures that U.S. fossil energy resources can meet increasing demand for affordable energy without compromising the quality of life for future generations of Americans.

National Renewable Energy Laboratory     The National Renewable Energy Laboratory develops renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies and practices, advances related science and engineering, and transfers knowledge and innovations to address the nation's energy and environmental goals.

New Brunswick Laboratory     The New Brunswick Laboratory is the Federal government's Nuclear Materials Measurements and Reference Materials Laboratory and the National Certifying Authority for nuclear reference materials and measurement calibration standards

Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education     The Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education is a U.S. Department of Energy facility focusing on scientific initiatives to research health risks from occupational hazards, assess environmental cleanup, respond to radiation medical emergencies, support national security and emergency preparedness, and educate the next generation of scientists.

Oak Ridge National Laboratory     The Oak Ridge National Laboratory is a multiprogram science and technology laboratory conducting basic and applied research and development to create scientific knowledge and technological solutions that strengthen the nation's leadership in key areas of science; increase the availability of clean, abundant energy; restore and protect the environment; and contribute to national security.

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory     The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory delivers science-based solutions to the Department of Energy's major challenges of expanding energy, ensuring national security, and advancing mission-driven science through outstanding staff and R&D capabilities, excellent operations, and high-value partnerships.

Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory     The Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory is a national center dedicated to plasma and fusion science with a leading international role in developing the theoretical, experimental, and technology innovations needed to make fusion practical and affordable.

Radiological and Environmental Sciences Laboratory     The Radiological and Environmental Sciences Laboratory provides the Department of Energy a reference laboratory to conduct key measurement quality assurance programs and provides technical support and quality assurance metrology that is directly traceable to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

Sandia National Laboratories     The Sandia National Laboratories develop science-based technologies that support national security through science and technology, people, infrastructure, and partnerships.

Savannah River Ecology Laboratory     The Savannah River Ecology Laboratory provides an independent evaluation of the ecological effects of DOE's Savannah River Site operations through a program of ecological research, education, and outreach.

Savannah River National Laboratory     The Savannah River National Laboratory is recognized as a world-class center of excellence for the development and application of unique and innovative science and technology solutions.

SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory     The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory is a laboratory dedicated to the design, construction and operation of state-of-the-art electron accelerators and related experimental facilities for use in high-energy physics and synchrotron radiation research.

Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility     The Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility is a national user facility for nuclear science using continuous beams of high-energy electrons to discover the underlying quark and gluon structure of nucleons and nuclei.

Sumber:

Wikipedia

Semoga Bermanfaat dan Terima Kasih

Indonesian Space Force Command

Indonesian Space Force Command   

 Komando Untuk Keamanan Luar Angkasa 

Dari Angkatan Antariksa Indonesia

"Kami Menjelajahi Alam Raya untuk Menemukan Keagungan Sang Maha Kuasa"

 ~Gen. Arip Nurahman~

 

 

 

(Komando Pasukan Khusus Angkatan Antariksa Indonesia)

 

(Korps Pasukan Khas Angkatan Udara)

 

Jet-powered fighters

It has become common in the aviation community to classify jet fighters by "generations" for historical purposes. There are no official definitions of these generations; rather, they represent the notion that there are stages in the development of fighter design approaches, performance capabilities, and technological evolution.

The timeframes associated with each generation are inexact and are only indicative of the period during which their design philosophies and technology employment enjoyed a prevailing influence on fighter design and development. These timeframes also encompass the peak period of service entry for such aircraft.

Second generation jet fighters (mid-1950s to early 1960s)

English Electric Lightning

The development of second-generation fighters was shaped by technological breakthroughs, lessons learned from the aerial battles of the Korean War, and a focus on conducting operations in a nuclear warfare environment. Technological advances in aerodynamics, propulsion and aerospace building materials (primarily aluminium alloys) permitted designers to experiment with aeronautical innovations, such as swept wings, delta wings, and area-ruled fuselages. Widespread use of afterburning turbojet engines made these the first production aircraft to break the sound barrier, and the ability to sustain supersonic speeds in level flight became a common capability amongst fighters of this generation.

Dassault Mirage III

Fighter designs also took advantage of new electronics technologies that made effective radars small enough to be carried aboard smaller aircraft. Onboard radars permitted detection of enemy aircraft beyond visual range, thereby improving the handoff of targets by longer-ranged ground-based warning and tracking radars. Similarly, advances in guided missile development allowed air-to-air missiles to begin supplementing the gun as the primary offensive weapon for the first time in fighter history. During this period, passive-homing infrared-guided (IR) missiles became commonplace, but early IR missile sensors had poor sensitivity and a very narrow field of view (typically no more than 30°), which limited their effective use to only close-range, tail-chase engagements.


Radar-guided (RF) missiles were introduced as well, but early examples proved unreliable. These semi-active radar homing (SARH) missiles could track and intercept an enemy aircraft "painted" by the launching aircraft's onboard radar. Medium- and long-range RF air-to-air missiles promised to open up a new dimension of "beyond-visual-range" (BVR) combat, and much effort was placed in further development of this technology.

MiG-21F interceptor

The prospect of a potential third world war featuring large mechanized armies and nuclear weapon strikes led to a degree of specialization along two design approaches: interceptors (like the English Electric Lightning and Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21F) and fighter-bombers (such as the Republic F-105 Thunderchief and the Sukhoi Su-7). Dogfighting, per se, was de-emphasized in both cases. The interceptor was an outgrowth of the vision that guided missiles would completely replace guns and combat would take place at beyond visual ranges. As a result, interceptors were designed with a large missile payload and a powerful radar, sacrificing agility in favor of high speed, altitude ceiling and rate of climb.

With a primary air defense role, emphasis was placed on the ability to intercept strategic bombers flying at high altitudes. Specialized point-defense interceptors often had limited range and little, if any, ground-attack capabilities. Fighter-bombers could swing between air superiority and ground-attack roles, and were often designed for a high-speed, low-altitude dash to deliver their ordnance. Television- and IR-guided air-to-surface missiles were introduced to augment traditional gravity bombs, and some were also equipped to deliver a nuclear bomb.

See also: List of second generation jet fighters

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Tentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Darat (Indonesian Army)
 

 http://www.tniad.mil.id/

Tentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Laut (Indonesian Navy)

http://www.tnial.mil.id/

Tentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Udara (Indonesian Air Force)

 http://tni-au.mil.id/

Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia (Indonesian Police)

 

http://www.polri.go.id/

Sumber: Wikipedia