Para Peraih Nobel dari California Institue of Technology IV

DOUGLAS OSHEROFF (b. 1945)

Douglas Osheroff (with David Lee and Robert Richardson) was honored with the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the transition of helium-3 into a superfluid state.

Osheroff attended Caltech as an undergraduate, earning his BS degree in physics in 1967. He went to Cornell to do his graduate work, where he studied under David Lee, his future fellow Nobel laureate. After receiving his PhD in 1972, he went to work at Bell Labs for the next 15 years, where he did research during what was considered the golden era at the labs.

In 1987, he left to become a professor of physics at Stanford University, where he continues to work on superfluid and solid helium-3. Besides supervising his graduate students, he also teaches undergraduate physics, and has won Stanford’s Gores Award for excellence in teaching.

ROBERT MERTON (b. 1944)

Robert Merton shared the 1997 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (with Myron Scholes) for his work in developing models for risk evaluation of options and other derivatives.

Merton received his BS in engineering mathematics in 1966 from Columbia University. He then went to Caltech to pursue a PhD in applied mathematics. During his first year there, he decided to study economics. Since Caltech in 1967 had yet to add a graduate economics program, Merton had to seek elsewhere for a doctoral program. 

His Caltech master’s degree served him well, however, for he appreciated Caltech’s “creed of placing students from the outset in a research framework . . . instead of merely passively learning the material.” As a doctoral student at MIT he studied under well-known economist Paul Samuelson. 

After earning his PhD in 1970, he taught finance for 18 years at MIT’s Sloan School of Management, where he met Myron Scholes. Merton moved to Harvard Business School in 1988, where he is currently John and Natty McArthur University Professor.

He is also a principal and co-founder of Long-Term Capital Management.

AHMED H. ZEWAIL (b.1946)

Ahmed H. Zewail won the 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his groundbreaking work in viewing and studying chemical reactions at the atomic level as they occur. 

He is internationally known as a pioneer in the field of femtochemistry, in which investigators use ultrafast lasers to probe chemical reactions in real time. Because reactions can take place in a millionth of a billionth of a second, Zewail's state-of-the-art lasers have made it possible to observe and study this motion for the first time, allowing scientists to understand at a fundamental level how chemical bonds form and break.

Femtochemistry has had wide-ranging impact on chemistry and photobiology all over the world.

Zewail, a native of Egypt and now a U.S. citizen, is Linus Pauling Professor of Chemical Physics and professor of physics at Caltech. He received both his bachelor's and his master's degrees from Alexandria University. He earned his doctorate from the University of Pennsylvania in 1974 and joined the Caltech faculty in 1976.

LELAND HARTWELL (b.1939)

Leland Hartwell was awarded the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (with co-recipients Timothy Hunt and Paul Nurse) “for his discoveries of a specific class of genes that control the cell cycle. One of these genes called ‘start’ was found to have a central role in controlling the first step of each cell cycle. Hartwell also introduced the concept ‘checkpoint,’ a valuable aid to understanding the cell cycle.”

By combining mutants and time-lapse photomicroscopy, Hartwell has identified 32 genes that regulate the cell cycle, and he has used genetics to define many of the steps in the signal transduction pathway that feeds into start, a control point in the cell cycle. The gene controlling start, CDC28, was cloned in his lab and was the first CDK identified. 

He has discovered that limitation or overexpression of many essential cell-cycle components leads to errors in chromosome transmission.

After graduating from Caltech in 1961 with a BS in biology, Hartwell received his PhD from MIT in 1964. He is a full professor at the University of Washington, where he has been since 1968. In 1996 he joined the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center as a full member and senior advisor for scientific affairs, and in 1997 was named president and director of the center.

VERNON LOMAX SMITH (b. 1927)
 

Vernon L. Smith shared the 2002 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences with Princeton's Daniel Kahneman. Smith was recognized "for having established laboratory experiments as a tool in empirical economic analysis, especially in the study of alternative market mechanisms." His research focuses on real people facing real choices (and with the potential to earn real money payoffs) to create data on economic choices and incentives.

Smith received his BS degree in electrical engineering from Caltech in 1949. As a senior, he had taken an economics course, which so intrigued him that he decided to pursue the subject further. He earned a master's degree at the University of Kansas, and then a PhD at Harvard, both in economics, and joined the faculty at Purdue. 

In the years that followed, he also taught at Stanford, Brown, and the University of Massachusetts. In the early 1970s he began a long-standing collaboration with Caltech experimental economist Charles Plott, and spent 1973-74 at the Institute as a Sherman Fairchild Distinguished Scholar. 

He stayed on in California through 1974-75 with a joint appointment at Caltech and USC. In 1975 he moved to the University of Arizona, where he remained for 26 years. Smith is currently professor of economics and law at George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia, a research scholar in the Interdisciplinary Center for Economic Science, and a fellow of the Mercatus Center.

HUGH DAVID POLITZER (b. 1949)
 

Hugh David Politzer won the 2004 Nobel Prize in physics for work he began as a graduate student on how the elementary particles known as quarks are bound together to form the protons and neutrons of atomic nuclei.

Politzer, a professor of theoretical physics at Caltech, shares the prize with David Gross and Frank Wilczek. The key discovery was made in 1973, when Politzer, a Harvard University graduate student at the time, and two physicists working independently from Politzer at Princeton University—Gross and his graduate student Wilczek—theorized that quarks actually become bound more tightly the farther they get from each other.

ROBERT H. GRUBBS (b. 1942)
 

Robert H. Grubbs shared the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Yves Chauvin (Institut Français du Pétrole) and Richard R. Schrock (MIT) for "the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis." Metathesis is an organic reaction in which chemists selectively strip out certain atoms in a compound and replace them with atoms that were previously part of another compound, resulting in a custom-built molecule with specialized properties. 

Grubbs's work on olefin metathesis in particular has produced powerful new catalysts that have enabled the custom synthesis of valuable molecules, among them pharmaceuticals and polymers with novel materials properties.

Grubbs earned his bachelor's and master's degrees from the University of Florida in 1963 and 1965, respectively. He received his PhD from Columbia University in 1968, then spent a year at Stanford as a postdoctoral fellow before joining the Michigan State University faculty. 

He came to Caltech in 1978 as a full professor, and was named the Victor and Elizabeth Atkins Professor of Chemistry in 1990.

Sumber:

California Institute of Technology

http://www.pma.caltech.edu/GSR/physics.html

Nobel Prize

Para Peraih Nobel dari California Institue of Technology III

MAX DELBRÜCK (1906–1981)

 
Max Delbrück shared (with Alfred Hershey and Salvador Luria) the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research on bacteriophages, a class of viruses that infect bacteria.

Originally trained as a theoretical physicist, Delbrück received his PhD from the University of Göttingen (Germany) in 1930. While doing postdoctoral research with Niels Bohr in Copenhagen, he became interested in how the issues and methods of physics might apply to biology. In 1937, as a Rockefeller Foundation fellow, he came to Caltech because of its strength in Drosophila genetics. 

He soon teamed up with E. L. Ellis to do phage research, seeing the bacteriophage as the ideal organism through which to apply the quantitative methods of physics to the study of genes. In 1939, he joined the faculty at Vanderbilt University, where he stayed for seven years. He returned to Caltech as a professor of biology in 1947, and remained for the rest of his career.

In the early 1950s, Delbrück’s research interests shifted yet again, from molecular genetics to sensory physiology.

 

LEO JAMES RAINWATER (1917–1986)

 

Leo Rainwater was a corecipient (with A. N. Bohr and Ben Mottelson) of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975. His research contributed to the determination that certain atoms have asymmetrical nuclei.

Rainwater received his bachelor’s degree from Caltech in 1939, then went on to earn a PhD at Columbia University in 1946. During World War II, he worked on the atomic bomb project.

In 1949, he began developing his theory that, contrary to what was then believed, not all atomic nuclei are spherical. His ideas were later tested and confirmed by Bohr’s and Mottelson’s experiments. 

Rainwater also contributed to the scientific understanding of x-rays and participated in Atomic Energy Commission and naval research projects. He joined the physics faculty at Columbia in 1952, where he was named Pupin Professor of Physics in 1982.

	DAVID BALTIMORE (b. 1938)   Caltech President David Baltimore shared the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with former faculty member Renato Dulbecco and alumnus Howard Temin (PhD ’60).  The three were recognized for research that led to the identification of the enzyme reverse transcriptase, which allows a molecule of RNA from a cancer-causing virus to change into DNA (thus reversing the normal sequence of information flow) and then splice itself to the DNA of a host cell. This discovery greatly expanded scientific understanding of retroviruses—the most infamous of which is HIV. Baltimore did his undergraduate work at Swarthmore College and earned his doctorate at Rockefeller University. He later worked as a research associate at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California. He joined the MIT faculty in 1968, and was appointed a full professor in 1972. After founding the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research in 1982, he served as its first director until 1990.  Baltimore was president of Rockefeller University from 1990 to 1991. Before becoming Caltech’s president in 1997, he was the Ivan R. Cottrell Professor of Molecular Biology and Immunology and the American Cancer Society Research Professor at MIT.  Baltimore has also been a major figure in Washington as head of the National Institutes of Health AIDS Vaccine Research Committee
	RENATO DULBECCO (b. 1914) Renato Dulbecco shared the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Howard Temin and David Baltimore “for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell.” Dulbecco was born in Italy, where he graduated from the University of Torino, receiving his medical degree in 1936. In 1947 he joined his former fellow student Salvador Luria at Indiana University in Bloomington, and then moved on to Caltech in 1949. At the Institute, he worked with Max Delbrück on phages before moving into the field of animal virology. Howard Temin was one of his graduate students, and their work started his interest in tumor viruses. In 1962, Dulbecco went to the Salk Institute, and in 1972 to the Imperial Cancer Research Fund Laboratories in London.
	HOWARD MARTIN TEMIN (1934–1994) Howard Temin shared the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Renato Dulbecco and David Baltimore for their joint discovery of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. Identification of this enzyme helped explain how certain viruses transform the cells they infect into cancer cells.  While doing graduate work with Dulbecco at Caltech, Temin began investigating how the Rous sarcoma virus causes cancer in animals. During these investigations, he observed that the virus—whose essential component is RNA—could not infect a cell if the cell’s synthesis of DNA was stopped.  After receiving his PhD in 1959, Temin spent another year working with Dulbecco, then joined the faculty at the University of Wisconsin in Madison, where he continued his research. In 1964, he proposed that the virus caused cancer by somehow changing its RNA into DNA, an idea that contradicted the contemporary belief that genetic information could only pass from DNA to RNA.  In 1970, Temin’s hypothesis was validated by his and Baltimore’s identification of reverse transcriptase as the mechanism whereby RNA is changed into DNA. Temin continued to teach and pursue research at the University of Wisconsin for the rest of his career.
	WILLIAM NUNN LIPSCOMB, JR. (b. 1919) William Lipscomb was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1976 for his studies on the structure of boranes (boron hydride compounds), work which also answered general questions about chemical bonding.  Boranes became important in chemical research in the 1940s and ‘50s because of the need to find volatile uranium compounds (borohydrides) for isotope separation, as well as the need to develop high-energy fuels for rockets and jet aircraft. To map the molecular structures of boranes, Lipscomb also developed x-ray techniques that later found application in many other areas of chemical research. After graduating from the University of Kentucky in 1941, Lipscomb came to Caltech to pursue graduate study. He received his PhD in 1946, then joined the faculty of the University of Minnesota, where he eventually became head of the physical chemistry division. In 1959, he left Minnesota to become professor of chemistry at Harvard. He served as chair of Harvard’s chemistry department from 1962 to 1965.
	ROBERT WOODROW WILSON (b. 1936) Robert Wilson shared the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics with Arno Penzias for finding the cosmic background radiation—new evidence of the Big Bang, the explosion of matter that scientists theorize created the universe. Wilson attended Rice University as an undergraduate, then earned a PhD from Caltech in 1962.  Starting in 1963, he worked at Bell Labs, where he and Penzias conducted experiments in connection with the first Telstar communication satellite. While tracking radio emissions from gases around the Milky Way, they detected excess radio noise that seemed to be coming from all directions at once.  After comparing notes with scientists doing similar research at MIT and Princeton, they concluded that they had discovered a universal thermal radiation field with a temperature of about 3 kelvins—a remnant of the Big Bang.  Wilson has since continued to study and measure various properties of interstellar molecules. In 1976, he became head of Bell Labs’ Radio Physics Department.
	ROGER WOLCOTT SPERRY (1913–1994) Roger Sperry was a corecipient (with David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel) of the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their research on the workings of the brain. Sperry was particularly recognized for discovering that each brain hemisphere controls different kinds of functions. Sperry studied English literature as an undergraduate, then received a master’s degree in psychology from Oberlin College. He did doctoral work in zoology at the University of Chicago, where he earned a PhD in 1941. He taught at the University of Chicago from 1946 to 1954, then came to Caltech as Hixon Professor of Psychobiology. Sperry was best known for his studies of “split brain” patients—usually epileptics whose corpus callosum (the nerve bundle connecting the two halves of the brain) had been severed. Using innovative experimental and surgical techniques, he demonstrated that the brain’s right hemisphere is normally dominant for such things as spatial awareness and musical comprehension, whereas the left hemisphere tends to control verbal and analytical tasks. Sperry taught and conducted research at the Institute until 1984, when he was named emeritus.
	KENNETH GEDDES WILSON (b. 1936) Kenneth Wilson was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work to construct improved theories about the transformations of matter called continuous, or second-order, phase transitions. His research led to a very general and effective mathematical strategy for understanding how complex microscopic behavior underlies gross macroscopic effects. Wilson received his bachelor’s degree from Harvard in 1956. He then came to Caltech to do graduate work with Murray Gell-Mann. He received his doctorate in 1961. He worked for a year with the European Council for Nuclear Research, then joined the faculty at Cornell University, where he remained until 1988. Since 1988, he has taught at the Ohio State University.
	WILLIAM ALFRED FOWLER (1911–1995) Willy Fowler shared (with S. Chandrasekhar) the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on nucleosynthesis, the process whereby the nuclei of lighter chemical elements fuse to create heavier ones.  In groundbreaking work in the late 1950s, he and his colleagues demonstrated that, starting only with the hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang, all the elements from carbon to uranium could be produced by the nuclear processes in stars. After receiving his bachelor’s degree from the Ohio State University in 1933, Fowler came to Caltech to study with Charles Lauritsen. He received his doctorate in 1936, and remained at the Institute as a research fellow until 1939, when he was appointed assistant professor.  He was named Institute Professor of Physics in 1970, and emeritus in 1982. During World War II, he carried out research and development on rocket ordnance and proximity fuses for Caltech’s rocket project. More recently, Fowler studied neutrinos (the subatomic particles released during nuclear reactions), quasars, and pulsars.
	RUDOLPH A. MARCUS (b. 1923) Rudy Marcus won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1992 for his development of a theory of electron transfer in chemical reactions. This work has increased scientific understanding of a wide variety of fundamental processes, including photosynthesis, corrosion, and cell metabolism. Marcus, a native of Canada, was educated at McGill University in Montreal. He received his PhD in 1946. He did postdoctoral research for the next five years, then joined the faculty of the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. Marcus began in the 1950s to study the forces that govern electrons as they move from one atom to another in chemical reactions, and first published his ideas between 1956 and 1965.  In 1964 he moved to the University of Illinois, where he spent 14 years with the division of physical chemistry. In 1978 he came to Caltech as Noyes Professor of Chemistry, the post he holds today. Although not universally accepted until validated experimentally in the mid-1980s, Marcus’s theories brought new order and method to many different subspecialties of chemistry. His predictions about why some chemical reactions proceed much faster than others were accessible to both theorists and experimentalists, and helped sort out what had been a mass of contradictory observations.
	EDWARD B. LEWIS (1918-2004)   Ed Lewis shared the 1995 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus for their research into “the genetic control of early embryonic development.”  He was specifically recognized for his studies of how genetic mutations in Drosophila fruit flies affect the insect’s development. Lewis received his bachelor’s degree in biostatistics from the University of Minnesota, then came to Caltech to do graduate work.  He received his PhD in 1942. He then studied meteorology at the Institute as an Army Air Force cadet. During World War II, he served as a weather forecaster in Hawaii and on board a ship outside Okinawa. In 1946, Lewis returned to Caltech as a member of the biology faculty, and in 1966 was named the Thomas Hunt Morgan Professor Biology. He became emeritus in 1988, but still can be found studying flies in his campus lab.  Though focused chiefly on Drosophila, Lewis’s work has helped expand scientific understanding of development in other organisms as well. Of particular significance were his discoveries about homeotic genes. These genes tell the initially undifferentiated cells of an embryo where and how to form the many different tissues and organs of the body, and are remarkably similar in all creatures—from fruit flies to mice to humans.

Sumber: 

California Institute of Technology

http://www.pma.caltech.edu/GSR/physics.html

Nobel Prize

The Science Behind The 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics

"Nothing will stop us. The road to the stars is steep and dangerous. But we're not afraid . . . Space flights can't be stopped. This isn't the work of one man or even a group of men. It is a historical process which mankind is carrying out in accordance with the natural laws of human development."

— Yuri Gagarin, regards the first death in space (Vladimir Komarov), 1967.

Delve deeper into the enigma of dark energy. These sections will give you an even closer look at the importance of dark energy, theories about its existence, and the techniques and historical background that led into its discovery.



1.What Is Dark Energy? Does it give us answers — or just reveal more questions?     

2.Fate of the Universe Will dark energy eventually tear the universe's atoms apart?  



3. Type Ia Supernovae How exploding stars help measure the cosmos





4. Out of Space, Back in Time How can we see what happened in the early universe?



5. Did Einstein Predict Dark Energy? He called it his "biggest blunder." But was it?




6.  Related Links Find more topical dark energy information  



7. Credits Special thanks to these contributors  


 

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2011

Saul Perlmutter, Brian P. Schmidt, Adam G. Riess

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2011 was divided, one half awarded to Saul Perlmutter, the other half jointly to Brian P. Schmidt and Adam G. Riess "for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae".

 

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2011

• Summary
• Prize Announcement
• Press Release
• Popular Information
• Advanced Information

Saul Perlmutter

• Biographical
• Interview

• Photo Gallery
• Other Resources

Brian P. Schmidt

• Biographical
• Interview

• Other Resources

Adam G. Riess

• Biographical
• Interview

• Photo Gallery
• Other Resources

Photo: Roy Kaltschmidt. Courtesy: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Saul Perlmutter

Born	1959 (age 51–52) Champaign-Urbana, Illinois, U.S.
Residence	United States
Nationality	American
Fields	Physics
Institutions	UC Berkeley/LBNL
Alma mater	Harvard (AB) / UC Berkeley (PhD)
Doctoral advisor	Richard A. Muller[1]
Known for	Accelerating universe / Dark energy
Notable awards	Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award (2002) Shaw Prize in Astronomy (2006) Gruber Prize in Cosmology (2007) Nobel Prize in Physics (2011)

Photo: Belinda Pratten, Australian National University

Brian Schmidt

Born	February 24, 1967 (1967-02-24) (age 44) Missoula, Montana, United States
Alma mater	University of Arizona (1989), Harvard University (1993)
Doctoral advisor	Robert Kirshner
Notable awards	Shaw Prize in Astronomy (2006) Nobel Prize in Physics (2011)

Photo: Homewood Photography

Adam Riess

Born	December 1969 (age 41) Washington, D.C., U.S.
Residence	United States
Nationality	American
Fields	Physics
Institutions	Johns Hopkins University / Space Telescope Science Institute
Alma mater	Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard University, University of California, Berkeley
Known for	Accelerating universe / Dark energy
Notable awards	Shaw Prize in Astronomy (2006) Nobel Prize in Physics (2011)

Written in the stars

(Photo by: Whisnu Trie Seno Ajie, Indonesia University of Education,
Former President at Cakrawala Asto Club)

"Some say the world will end in fire, some say in ice..." 
~Robert Frost, Fire and Ice, 1920~

What will be the final destiny of the Universe? 

Probably it will end in ice, if we are to believe this year's Nobel Laureates in Physics. They have studied several dozen exploding stars, called supernovae, and discovered that the Universe is expanding at an ever-accelerating rate. The discovery came as a complete surprise even to the Laureates themselves.

In 1998, cosmology was shaken at its foundations as two research teams presented their findings. Headed by Saul Perlmutter, one of the teams had set to work in 1988. Brian Schmidt headed another team, launched at the end of 1994, where Adam Riess was to play a crucial role.

The research teams raced to map the Universe by locating the most distant supernovae. More sophisticated telescopes on the ground and in space, as well as more powerful computers and new digital imaging sensors (CCD, Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009), opened the possibility in the 1990s to add more pieces to the cosmological puzzle.

The teams used a particular kind of supernova, called type Ia supernova. It is an explosion of an old compact star that is as heavy as the Sun but as small as the Earth. A single such supernova can emit as much light as a whole galaxy. All in all, the two research teams found over 50 distant supernovae whose light was weaker than expected - this was a sign that the expansion of the Universe was accelerating. The potential pitfalls had been numerous, and the scientists found reassurance in the fact that both groups had reached the same astonishing conclusion.

For almost a century, the Universe has been known to be expanding as a consequence of the Big Bang about 14 billion years ago. However, the discovery that this expansion is accelerating is astounding. If the expansion will continue to speed up the Universe will end in ice.

The acceleration is thought to be driven by dark energy, but what that dark energy is remains an enigma - perhaps the greatest in physics today. What is known is that dark energy constitutes about three quarters of the Universe. Therefore the findings of the 2011 Nobel Laureates in Physics have helped to unveil a Universe that to a large extent is unknown to science. And everything is possible again.

Read more about this year's prize

Information for the Public Pdf 4,9 MB

Scientific Background Pdf 1 MB

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Links and Further Reading

---

1. Saul Perlmutter, U.S. citizen. Born 1959 in Champaign-Urbana, IL, USA. Ph.D. 1986 from University of California, Berkeley, USA. Head of the Supernova Cosmology Project, Professor of Astrophysics, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
www.physics.berkeley.edu/research/faculty/perlmutter.html

2. Brian P. Schmidt, U.S. and Australian citizen. Born 1967 in Missoula, MT, USA. Ph.D. 1993 from Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA. Head of the High-z Supernova Search Team, Distinguished Professor, Australian National University, Weston Creek, Australia.
msowww.anu.edu.au/~brian/

3. Adam G. Riess, U.S. citizen. Born 1969 in Washington, DC, USA. Ph.D. 1996 from Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA. Professor of Astronomy and Physics, Johns Hopkins University and Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA.
www.stsci.edu/~ariess/
Prize amount: SEK 10 million, with one half to Saul Perlmutter and the other half to be shared equally between Brian Schmidt and Adam Riess.

Contact persons: Erik Huss, Press Officer, Phone +46 8 673 95 44, mobile +46 70 673 96 50, erik.huss@kva.se
Annika Moberg, Editor, Phone +46 8 673 95 22, Mobile +46 70 673 96 90, annika.moberg@kva.se

"Aku sadar bahwa ada keindahan lain yang memukau di Alam Semesta ini selain dari 'Cinta' "

~Arip~

Sources:

1. http://hubblesite.org/
2. http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2011/#

Para Peraih Nobel dari California Institue of Technology II

"Enthusiasm is followed by disappointment and even depression, and then by renewed enthusiasm."

*Murray Gell-Mann*

 

GEORGE WELLS BEADLE (1903–1989)

George W. Beadle was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1958 for his “one gene-one enzyme” theory of gene action. His early experiments with Drosophila revealed that even such an apparently simple characteristic as eye color was the result of a long series of genetically determined chemical reactions.

Later experiments with the bread mold Neurospora enabled him to conclude that each gene determined the structure of a particular enzyme, which in turn controlled a single chemical reaction. 

A pioneer in the field of biochemical genetics, the series of discoveries he made between 1941 and 1953 closed out the era of classical genetics à la Morgan and ushered in the molecular age.

Beadle came to Caltech in 1931, after earning his PhD in corn genetics from Cornell University and having been awarded a National Research Council Fellowship to do postdoctoral work in Thomas Hunt Morgan’s Division of Biology. 

He spent several subsequent years on other genetic research in collaboration with scientists at the Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique in Paris, at Harvard, and at Stanford. In 1946, he became professor and chairman of the biology division at Caltech, where he remaineduntil 1960, when he was named chancellor of the University of Chicago.

After retiring from that position, he directed the American Medical Association’s Institute for Biomedical Research from 1968 to 1970. He also returned to experimental biology, working on a problem close to his heart: the origin of maize. 

DONALD ARTHUR GLASER (b. 1926)

 
Donald Glaser was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1960 for his invention of the bubble chamber. This instrument became widely used in physics research because it allowed scientists to observe the behavior of subatomic particles and to measure their paths precisely. 

In 1946, after completing his undergraduate work at the Case Institute of Technology in Cleveland, Glaser came to Caltech to pursue graduate study with Carl Anderson. He received his PhD in physics from the Institute in 1949. 


He then joined the physics faculty at the University of Michigan, where he taught and pursued research that led to the development of the bubble chamber. In 1959, Glaser left Michigan to teach at the University of California, Berkeley. He was named professor of physics and molecular biology in 1964. 

RUDOLF LUDWIG MÖSSBAUER (b. 1929)

 
Rudolf Mössbauer was a cowinner (with Robert Hofstadter) of the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the Mössbauer effect. He was 32 years old when he received the prize, one of the youngest scientists ever to be so honored. 

The effect that bears his name involves the production of gamma rays of a single, precise energy from the nuclei of atoms embedded in crystals. It is a yardstick that makes it possible to measure with an unprecedented sensitivity the effects of gravity, electricity, and magnetism on photons and atomic nuclei. 

Mössbauer first observed the effect in 1957, while still a graduate student at the Technical Academy of Munich. He received his PhD in 1958, and came to Caltech as a research fellow in 1960. He was named professor of physics in 1961. 

Mössbauer returned to Munich a few years later to join the physics faculty at the Technical Academy. He was a visiting professor of physics at Caltech in 1964. 

CHARLES HARD TOWNES (b. 1915)

 
Charles Townes was a corecipient (with the Soviet physicists Prokhorov and Basov) of the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work in the then-new field of quantum electronics, and particularly for his role in the invention of the maser and the laser.

Townes came to Caltech as a graduate student in 1937, and received his PhD in 1939. Later that year he became a member of the technical staff at Bell Labs, where he stayed until 1948. 

He then joined the faculty at Columbia University, and began the work that in 1953 produced the maser (microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation). From 1959 to 1961 he headed the Institute for Defense Analyses in Washington, D.C. He then served as provost and professor of physics at MIT for six years. 

 In 1967, he went to the University of California, Berkeley, where his pioneering program in radio and infrared astronomy led to the discovery of ammonia and water molecules in the interstellar medium. He was named emeritus in 1986.

RICHARD PHILLIPS FEYNMAN (1918-1988)

 
Richard Feynman shared the Nobel Prize in Physics (with Julian Schwinger and Tomonaga Shin’ichiro) in 1965 for his formulation of a comprehensive theory of quantum electrodynamics—how electrically charged particles interact with photons and with each other. 

His version of this theory, and its accompanying “Feynman diagrams”—intuitive, pictorial representations of interactions among elementary particles—revolutionized the way scientists think about these processes in many fields of physics.

After receiving his PhD from Princeton University in 1942, Feynman worked on the atomic bomb project, both at Princeton and at Los Alamos, New Mexico. 

At the end of the war, he joined the physics faculty at Cornell University, where he taught and continued his quantum electrodynamics research. In 1950, he became professor of theoretical physics at Caltech, where he remained for the rest of his career.

While at the Institute, he pursued a number of projects, including devising a quantum mechanical explanation of superfluidity, and developing (with Murray Gell-Mann) a theory of the weak force.

In 1968 he proposed a theory of “partons”—hypothetical hard particles inside the nucleus of the atom—that contributed to the understanding of quarks.

In 1986, Feynman became known to an even larger audience through his participation—and his famous ice-water experiment—on the Presidential Commission investigating the explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger.

 

MURRAY GELL-MANN (b. 1929)

 
Murray Gell-Mann was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1969 for his efforts to develop a unifying scheme of classification for subatomic particles and their interactions.

Gell-Mann received his doctorate in physics from MIT in 1951, at the age of 21. In 1952 he joined the Institute for Nuclear Studies at the University of Chicago, where his research yielded the first definition of the quantum property of “strangeness.” 

The concept of strangeness helped explain certain particle decay patterns that had long mystified scientists. Gell-Mann came to Caltech in 1955. Six years later, he first proposed his “Eightfold Way,” a scheme for classifying protons and neutrons into families.

This work led him to theorize further that the behavior of known particles might be explained in terms of the even more fundamental building blocks he dubbed “quarks” (the word is borrowed from James Joyce’s Finnegans Wake). Gell-Mann was appointed Robert Andrews Millikan Professor of Theoretical Physics in 1967.

He now lives in Santa Fe, New Mexico, where he is associated with the Santa Fe Institute, an interdisciplinary think-tank he cofounded in 1984.

Sumber: 

California Institute of Technology

http://www.pma.caltech.edu/GSR/physics.html

Nobel Prize

Para Peraih Nobel dari California Institue of Technology I

"There is no likelihood man can ever tap the power of the atom. The glib supposition of utilizing atomic energy when our coal has run out is a completely unscientific Utopian dream, a childish bug-a-boo. Nature has introduced a few fool-proof devices into the great majority of elements that constitute the bulk of the world, and they have no energy to give up in the process of disintegration."

 ~Prof. Robert A. Millikan, 1928 at the Chemists' Club (New York)

ROBERT ANDREWS MILLIKAN (1868–1953)

 
Robert A. Millikan was Caltech’s first Nobel Prize winner. He was awarded the physics prize in 1923 for isolating the electron and measuring its charge. 

An impressive experimentalist, Millikan is also credited with the verification of Einstein’s photoelectric equations and with the numerical determination of Planck’s constant. 

He also initiated serious study of cosmic rays, and in fact gave them their present nam.

Millikan left a professorship at the University of Chicago to become director of Caltech’s new Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics in 1921. 

With George Ellery Hale and A. A. Noyes, Millikan formed the executive council that molded the Institute into a preeminent research university. Refusing the presidency of Caltech, he instead served as the chairman of the council from 1921 until his retirement in 1945. 

In his will, he left one-fifth of his estate—$100,000—as an endowment fund for one of his favorite campus organizations: the Caltech Y.

THOMAS HUNT MORGAN (1866–1945)

 
Thomas Hunt Morgan won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1933 for his chromosome theory of heredity. On the basis of experimental research with the fruit fly (Drosophila), he demonstrated that genes are linked in a series on chromosomes and that they determine identifiable, hereditary traits. 

An embryologist by training, Morgan turned his attention to Drosophila in 1908. On the basis of fly-breeding experiments, he developed a hypothesis of sex-linked characteristics, which he theorized were part of the X chromosome of females.

In 1928, he came to Caltech to organize work in biology. 

The most influential biologist in America at that time, Morgan pioneered the new science of genetics, the essential science for the future of biology. In 1930, he also established a marine biology laboratory at Corona del Mar (the lab is still in use today). 

By then, Morgan had left Drosophila genetics and had returned to his earlier interest in developmental biology.

He often spent weekends at the marine station working with an organism called the sea squirt. He remained on the Caltech faculty for the rest of his career. 

CARL DAVID ANDERSON (1905–1991)

 
Carl D. Anderson was a corecipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1936, when he was only 31 years old and still an assistant professor at Caltech. 

Anderson won the prize for discovering the positron, the first empirical evidence for the existence of antimatter, in the course of his cosmic-ray researches. (He shared the physics prize with Victor F. Hess of Austria, the discoverer of cosmic rays.) It was Robert A. Millikan, Anderson’s graduate advisor, who had steered Anderson into cosmic-ray research.

Anderson arrived at Caltech in 1923 as an 18-year-old freshman, and never left. He discovered the positron in 1932, using a cloud chamber. 

Shortly thereafter, Anderson and his graduate student, Seth Neddermeyer, discovered mu-mesons, or muons. During World War II, Caltech scientists produced and tested land and aircraft rockets for the United States Navy. 

Anderson supervised the testing of aircraft rockets at China Lake and later visited the front lines in Europe to observe how the rockets performed. 

He served as chair of the Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy from 1962 to 1970, and was named emeritus in 1976.

EDWIN MATTISON MCMILLAN (1907–1991)

Edwin M. McMillan won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1951 for his discovery of element 93, neptunium, the first so-called transuranium (heavier than uranium) element. He shared the prize that year with Glenn T. Seaborg.

McMillan received his bachelor’s and master’s degrees at Caltech in 1928 and 1929, respectively, then earned his doctorate at Princeton University in 1932. 

He then accepted a faculty position at the University of California, Berkeley, where he was named professor in 1946 and director of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory in 1958. He discovered neptunium, a decay product of uranium-239, in 1940, while studying nuclear fission. 

In 1945, he made a major advance in the development of Ernest Lawrence’s cyclotron, when he synchronized the device’s electrical pulses to allow atoms to accelerate indefinitely. McMillan served as president of the National Academy of Sciences from 1968 to 1971.

LINUS CARL PAULING (1901–1994)

 
Linus Pauling was the only winner of two unshared Nobel Prizes in different categories. He is also considered by many to be the greatest chemist of the 20th century. 

He was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on molecular structure and chemical bonds, and he won the Peace Prize in 1962 for his efforts to prevent the testing and use of nuclear weapons.

Pauling came to Caltech as a graduate student, receiving his PhD in physical chemistry in 1925. 

He then joined the faculty, becoming a full professor in 1931 (at the age of 30), and chair of the chemistry and chemical engineering division six years later. 

In addition to his research on chemical bonding, he made important discoveries in molecular biology, such as identifying the genetic defect in the hemoglobin molecule that causes sickle-cell disease. 

In 1951, Pauling and Robert Corey discovered the alpha helix structure that serves as a universal structural building block for protein molecules. 

In the 1970s, Pauling provoked controversy by suggesting that large doses of Vitamin C would promote good health. After leaving Caltech in 1963, he was a member of the Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions in Santa Barbara, a professor at Stanford University, and director of research at the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine in Palo Alto.

WILLIAM BRADFORD SHOCKLEY (1910–1989)

William B. Shockley shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics with John Bardeen and Walter H. Brattain for their development of the transistor, which largely replaced the much-larger, less-efficient vacuum tube and made possible the construction of microelectronic devices.

Schockley received his BS degree at Caltech in 1932; he then earned a PhD at Harvard. In 1936, he accepted a position on the technical staff of Bell Labs, where he began the work that ultimately produced the transistor. He served as director of research for the Antisubmarine Warfare Operations Research Group of the U.S. Navy during World War II. 

Schockley returned to Caltech in 1954 as a visiting professor of physics, then worked for a year as deputy director of Weapons Systems Evaluation for the Department of Defense. 

He joined Beckman Instruments, Inc., in 1955, and founded the Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory there. In 1958, he went to Stanford University, where he became the first Poniatoff Professor of Engineering Science in 1963. 

He retired in 1974.

Sumber:

California Institute of Technology

http://www.pma.caltech.edu/GSR/physics.html

Nobel Prize