Ekonomi dan Astro Fisika

Astrophysics in Quantum Relativistic Chaotic Condition for solving Economics Frustrated System

 by: Arip Nurahman

Econophysics is an interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally developed by physicists in order to solve problems in economics, usually those including uncertainty or stochastic processes and nonlinear dynamics. Its application to the study of financial markets has also been termed statistical finance referring to its roots in statistical physics.

Physicists’ interest in the social sciences is not new; Daniel Bernoulli, as an example, was the originator of utility-based preferences. One of the founders of neoclassical economic theory, former Yale University Professor of Economics Irving Fisher, was originally trained under the renowned Yale physicist, Josiah Willard Gibbs. Likewise, Jan Tinbergen, who won the first Nobel Prize in economics in 1969 for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes, studied physics with Paul Ehrenfest at Leiden University.

Econophysics was started in the mid-1990s by several physicists working in the subfield of statistical mechanics. Unsatisfied with the traditional explanations and approaches of economists - which usually prioritized simplified approaches for the sake of soluble theoretical models over agreement with empirical data - they applied tools and methods from physics, first to try to match financial data sets, and then to explain more general economic phenomena.

One driving force behind econophysics arising at this time was the sudden availability of large amounts of financial data, starting in the 1980s. It became apparent that traditional methods of analysis were insufficient - standard economic methods dealt with homogeneous agents and equilibrium, while many of the more interesting phenomena in financial markets fundamentally depended on heterogeneous agents and far-from-equilibrium situations.

High Energy Astrophysical Phenomena

High-energy astrophysics involves the study of exceedingly dynamic and energetic phenomena occurring near the most extreme celestial objects known to exist, such as black holes, neutron stars, white dwarfs, and supernova remnants. High-Energy Astrophysics provides graduate and advanced undergraduate students with the most complete, self-contained introduction to the subject available. This textbook covers all the essentials, weaving together the latest theory with the experimental techniques, instrumentation, and observational methods astronomers use to study high-energy radiation from space.

Fulvio Melia introduces topics at the forefront of today's research, including relativistic particles, energetic radiation, and accretion disk theory. No other textbook offers such a thorough yet concise treatment of the key aspects of high-energy astrophysics--both theoretical and observational--or delves as deeply into modern detection techniques, satellite systems, and analytical and numerical modeling used by theoreticians. Amply illustrated, High-Energy Astrophysics is also ideal for researchers interested in the application of fundamental physical laws to understand how matter and radiation behave in regions of the universe where physical conditions are most extreme.

• Uniquely weaves together the theoretical and experimental aspects of this important branch of astronomy
• Features stunning images of the high-energy sky
• Fully describes the principal classes of high-energy sources, with an in-depth study of many archetypal objects within them
• Provides an excellent, self-contained resource for the classroom, written by a preeminent researcher and teacher in the field

Review:

"The well-written work provides an excellent balance between relevant graduate physics and observational summaries of key high-energy astrophysical phenomena, such as pulsars, black holes, and active galactic nuclei. The explanations are lucid and concise, and the mathematical detail is well suited to the intended audience, primarily graduate students in astrophysics."--Choice

Endorsement:

"A splendid resource for students and researchers wanting a physics-based overview of the extraordinary findings of X-ray, gamma-ray, and cosmic-ray astronomy. The key properties of accreting black holes, gamma-ray bursts, pulsars, magnetars, galaxy clusters, and the many other fantastic denizens of the high-energy universe are highlighted, along with the tools and methods used to investigate them."--Niel Brandt, Pennsylvania State University

"The introductory graduate literature available in high-energy astrophysics has not kept up with the field's explosion in breadth and impact. This ambitious and badly needed text ably surveys the field, covering an impressive range of topics while still providing good physical insight. The many illustrations, references for further study, and discussions of modern topics like theoretical computer simulations should make this book attractive to students and professors alike."--Paolo Coppi, Yale University

"This is a very carefully constructed book and one that has been needed in our field for many years. Melia writes clearly, and the topics include most of the major ones that should be covered. Indeed, this is a book I would likely use in my high-energy astrophysics course here at Harvard."--Jonathan E. Grindlay, Harvard University

Table of Contents

Other Princeton books authored or coauthored by Fulvio Melia:

• The Black Hole at the Center of Our Galaxy.
• The Galactic Supermassive Black Hole.

Series:

• Princeton Series in Astrophysics
  David N. Spergel, Series Editor

Subject Areas:

• Astronomy and Cosmology
• Physics

How Indonesian People Get Nobel Prize in The Future

Central for Research and Development for Winning

Nobel Prize in Physics at Indonesia

Nobel Fisika Indonesia

(Belajar Kepada Dua Profesor Bragg)

"Untuk pemeriksaannya pada sifat zat pada temperatur rendah yang menunjukkan, inter alia, pada pembuatan helium cair"

Sir William Henry Bragg	William Lawrence Bragg
1/2 of the prize	1/2 of the prize
United Kingdom	United Kingdom
University College London, United Kingdom	Victoria University Manchester, United Kingdom
b. 1862 d. 1942	b. 1890 (in Adelaide, Australia) d. 1971

Titles, data and places given above refer to the time of the award.
Photos: Copyright © The Nobel Foundation

Sir William Henry Bragg
Born	2 July 1862(1862-07-02) Wigton, Cumberland, England
Died	10 March 1942(1942-03-10) (aged 79) London, England
Residence	England
Nationality	British
Fields	Physics
Institutions	University of Adelaide University of Leeds University College London Royal Institution
Alma mater	Cambridge University
Academic advisors	J. J. Thomson
Doctoral students	W. L. Bragg Kathleen Lonsdale William Thomas Astbury John Desmond Bernal
Other notable students	John Burton Cleland
Known for	X-ray diffraction
Notable awards	Nobel Prize in Physics (1915)
Notes He is the father of William Lawrence Bragg. Father and son jointly won the Nobel Prize.

Sir William Henry Bragg OM, KBE, PRS (2 July 1862 – 10 March 1942) was a British physicist, chemist, mathematician and active sportsman who uniquely^[1] shared a Nobel Prize with his son William Lawrence Bragg - the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics. The mineral Braggite is named after him and his son.

Sir William Henry Bragg OM, MA (Cantab), PhD; Westward, Cumberland, 2 Juli 1862 – 10 Maret 1942) ialah fisikawan dan kimiawan Inggris, dididik di King William's College, Isle of Man, dan Trinity College, Cambridge. Ia menjabat di fakultas-fakultas University of Adelaide di Australia (1886-1908), University of Leeds (1909-15), dan University College London (1915-25). Dari 1923 ia adalah Profesor Fuller dalam Kimia di Royal Institution dan direktur Davy Faraday Research Laboratory. Ia menerima Penghargaan Nobel dalam Fisika pada 1915 bersama puteranya Lawrence Bragg untuk studi mereka, menggunakan spektrometer sinar X, dari spektrum sinar X, difraksi sinar X, dan struktur kristal. Ia menjadi anggota Royal Society pada 1906 dan menjabat sebagai pimpinannya dari 1935 hingga 1940.

Ernest Rutherford menerima teorinya pada proten dan nukleus dengan Bragg, yang tidak setuju dengannya.

Teater kuliah King William's College dinamai untuk mengenangnya.

Bragg memberi Romanes Lecture di Oxford selama 1925, pada Keadaan Kristal.

Sejak 1992 Australian Institute of Physics telah menganugerahi Bragg Gold Medal for Excellence in Physics untuk tesis PhD terbaik oleh seorang mahasiswa di perguruan tinggi di sana.

Pada 1889, ia menikahi Gwendoline Todd.

William Lawrence Bragg
William L. Bragg in 1915
Born	31 March 1890(1890-03-31) North Adelaide, South Australia
Died	1 July 1971(1971-07-01) (aged 81) Waldringfield, Ipswich, Suffolk, England
Nationality	British
Fields	Physics
Institutions	University of Manchester University of Cambridge
Alma mater	University of Adelaide University of Cambridge
Doctoral advisor	J. J. Thomson W.H. Bragg
Doctoral students	John Crank Ronald Wilfried Gurney
Known for	X-ray diffraction Bragg's Law
Notable awards	Nobel Prize in Physics (1915) Copley Medal (1966)
Notes At 25, the youngest person ever to receive a Nobel Prize. He was the son of W.H. Bragg. Note that the PhD did not exist at Cambridge until 1919, and so J. J. Thomson and W.H. Bragg were his equivalent mentors.

Sir William Lawrence Bragg CH OBE MC FRS (31 March 1890 – 1 July 1971) was an Australian-born British physicist and X-ray crystallographer, discoverer (1912) of the Bragg law of X-ray diffraction, which is basic for the determination of crystal structure. He was joint winner (with his father, Sir William Bragg) of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1915. He was knighted in 1941. To date, Lawrence Bragg is the youngest Nobel Laureate. He was the director of the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, when the epochal discovery of the structure of DNA was made by James D. Watson and Francis Crick in February 1953.

William Lawrence Bragg (1890-1971) ialah putera sulung fisikawan William H. Bragg. Pada tahun 1915, bersama mereka menerima Penghargaan Nobel dalam Fisika untuk karya mereka dalam kristalografi sinar X. Ia memulai studi perguruan tinggi dalam matematika di Australia, lalu pindah ke Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, di mana ia mengubah fokusnya ke fisika.

Pada tahun 1912, Max Theodor Felix von Laue melaporkan difraksi sinar X dengan sebuah kristal (sehingga ia menerima Hadiah Nobel Fisika pada tahun 1914). Bersama ayahnya, Lawrence-yang saat itu mahasiswa doktoral dengan J.J. Thomson di Cambridge-segera mulai menjelajahi fenomena ini. Mereka memiliki minat dan kemampuan berbeda pada kolaborasi itu. William Lawrence sendiri lebih tertarik pada apa yang diungkapkan sinar X mengenai keadaan kristal, dan ia memiliki kemampuan kuat untuk mengkonseptualisasikan masalah-masalah fisika dan mengekspresikannya secara matematis. Kristal anorganik sederhana seperti natrium klorida ialah subyek dalam studi awal kristalografi sinar-X. Di sini hasil yang mengejutkan ialah dalam keadaan padat senyawa ion tersebut tak nampak seperti ion negatif dan positif yang saling berpasangan. Sebagai contoh, sodium klorida, tak nampak sebagai kesatuan NaCl; daripada Na dan Cl yang bergantian dalam mode teratur dalam kisi-kisi kristal.

Namun karya pada kristalografi sinar X tertunda selama Perang Dunia I, dan Bragg berdua menjabat sebagai penasihat ilmiah bagi militer AS—khususnya pada masalah deteksi bawah laut. Setelah PD I, William Lawrence memulai karier akademiknya, menyusul langkah Ernest Rutherford—pertama di Universitas Manchester dan kemudian di Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge.

Bragg ayah dan putera itu meneruskan kerja mereka pada kristalografi sinar X dan membangun program untuk mahasiswa doktoral dan pascadoktoral. Di bawah kepemimpinan mereka bidang ini berpindah ke bidang studi seperti struktur logam dan senyawa organik dan kemudian ke kepentingan biokimiawi dan pengobatan.

Presentation Speech

The following account of the work of the Braggs is by Professor G. Granqvist, Chairman of the Nobel Committee for Physics of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences

Von Laue's epoch-making discovery of the diffraction of the X-rays in crystals, on the one hand established wave motion as the essential quality of those rays and, on the other, afforded the experimental proof of the existence of molecular gratings in the crystals. The problem, however, of calculating the crystal structures from von Laue's formulae was an exceedingly complicated one, in as much as not only the space lattices, but also the wavelengths and the intensity-distribution over the various wavelengths in the spectra of the X-rays, were unknown quantities. It was consequently a discovery of epoch-making significance when W.L. Bragg found out that the phenomenon could be treated mathematically as a reflection by the successive parallel planes that may be placed so as to pass through the lattice points, and that in this way the ratio between the wavelengths and the distances of the said planes from each other can be calculated by a simple formula from the angle of reflection.

It was only by means of that simplification of the mathematical method that it became possible to attack the problem of the crystal structures, but to attain the end in view it was further necessary that the photographic method employed by von Laue should be replaced by an experimental one, based on the reflection principle, which admitted of a definite, even though at first unknown, wavelength being made use of. The instrument requisite for the said purpose, the so-called X-ray spectrometer, was constructed by Professor W.H. Bragg, W.L. Bragg's father, and it has been with the aid of that instrument that father and son have carried out, in part conjointly, in part each on his own account, a series of extremely important investigations respecting the structure of crystals.

If a number of cubes are laid on and beside each other in such a way that one cube face coincides in every case with the face of an adjoining cube, whereby consequently eight vertices always meet in one point, those angular points give a visual picture of the lattice points in the so-called simple cubic lattice. If again a lattice point is placed so as to coincide with the central point of each cube face, the so-called face-centred cubic lattice is obtained, whereas the centred cubic lattice has one lattice point in every cube-centre. With the exception of these three cases there is no cubic lattice that fulfils the condition that parallel planes placed in any direction whatever so as to pass through all the lattice points, shall also be at a constant distance from each other. The space lattice in the regular or cubic system must therefore coincide with one of those three, or constitute combinations of them. In such lattice combinations, on the other hand, in which the condition just mentioned is not fulfilled, where consequently parallel planes placed to pass through all the lattice points in certain directions are not equidistant, that circumstance is revealed by an abnormal intensity distribution among spectra of different orders, when the reflection takes place by those planes.

From crystallographical data it is always known how the face of a cube is situated in any given regular crystal, and there is consequently no difficulty in fixing the crystal on the spectrometer table in such a way that the reflection shall take place by planes with any prescribed orientation.

The rays falling on the crystal were produced by X-ray tubes, platinum being at first used for the anticathode. The characteristic X-radiation of the metals consists, as is well known, of a few strong lines or narrow bands, and the very first experiments with the spectrometer revealed the X-radiation that is characteristic of platinum. However, in the research undertaken to find out the nature of complicated space lattices, in which an abnormal intensity distribution among spectra of varying orders constitutes one of the most important of the results observed, it soon proved desirable to have available an X-radiation of approximately half the wavelength of the strongest platinum-line. From theoretical considerations W.H. Bragg regarded it as probable that a metal whose atomic weight was somewhere near the figure 100, would give a characteristic radiation of the desired wavelength. Accordingly anticathodes of palladium and rhodium were produced, which fully answered the purpose in view, so that spectra ev en of the fifth order could be obtained and measured. In order to take practical advantage, however, of those results, it was essential to have a method for calculating the intensity in the case of a complicated space lattice, that would prove simpler than the one given by von Laue's theory, and W.L. Bragg developed one.

The above is a brief sketch of the methods discovered by the two Braggs for investigating crystal structures. The results of their investigations embrace a large number of crystals belonging to various systems and can only be cursorily summarized in this place.

To begin with, the two investigators applied themselves to the simplest types of the regular system, represented by the alkaline haloid salts. It then proved that potassium bromide and potassium iodide showed the spectra that are characteristic of a face-centred cubic lattice, while the spectra of potassium chloride represented a simple cubic lattice, sodium chloride occupying an intermediate position. As it must be assumed, on the strength of the analogy of these salts, both in a chemical and a crystallographical sense, that they are possessed of a corresponding space lattice, which could also be corroborated in another way, it was proved by those researchers that the lattice of the crystals in question consists of two face-centred cubic lattices corresponding to the two atoms, which interpenetrate in such a way that they together constitute one single cubic lattice.

From these investigations it follows that a metal atom in the crystals of the alkaloid salts is situated at one and the same distance from the six haloid atoms nearest to it, and vice versa - a relationship that was found to prevail, mutatis mutandis, in all the crystals examined. That means the exceedingly important discovery, both for molecular physics and chemistry, that the crystals consist of atomic lattices and not, as has been always imagined, of molecular ones.

Two face-centred cubic lattices can also interpenetrate in such a way that every point belonging to the one lattice is at the centre of gravity of a tetrahedron whose vertices are points belonging to the other lattice. That structure was found by the two Braggs in the diamond, and afforded an experimental support for the tetrahedral arrangement that chemists postulate for the four-coordinate carbon. On the other hand, the explanation became evident of why crystallographers have not been able to agree regarding the class in the regular system to which the diamond should be referred.

It would carry us too far and be quite too complicated a proceeding to give an account here of the further investigations into the space lattices of the crystals. It will suffice to add that, in the course of their investigations, the two Braggs have also discovered important relations between the amplitude and the phase difference of the diffracted rays on the one hand and the atomic weights on the other, and have also shown experimentally the influence of heat on the space lattice.

Finally it may be mentioned that the two investigators have also determined the wavelengths of the X-rays and the distances between the successive planes placed to pass through the lattice points with such exactitude, that the error, if any, is probably a t most some few units per cent and is more due to the general physical constant entering into the calculations than to the measurements themselves.

Thanks to the methods that the Braggs, father and son, have devised for investigating crystal structures, an entirely new world has been opened and has already in part been explored with marvellous exactitude. The significance of these methods, and of the results attained by their means, cannot as yet be gauged in its entirety, however imposing its dimensions already appear to be. In consideration of the great importance that these methods possess for research in the realm of physics, the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences decided that the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics should be divided between Professor W.H. Bragg and his son W.L. Bragg, in recognition of their services in promoting the investigation of crystal structures by means of X-rays.

From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967

Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1915

Sumber:

1. Wikipedia

2. Nobel Prize Org.

Ucapan Terima Kasih:

1. DEPDIKNAS Republik Indonesia

2. Kementrian Riset dan Teknologi Indonesia

3. Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI)

4. Akademi Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia

5. Tim Olimpiade Fisika Indonesia

Disusun Ulang Oleh: 

Arip Nurahman

Pendidikan Fisika, FPMIPA, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
&
Follower Open Course Ware at MIT-Harvard University, USA.

Semoga Bermanfaat dan Terima Kasih